2.2 Traditional African instruments and ensemble types

African music is all about rhythm and community. Traditional instruments like drums, xylophones, and harps create complex polyrhythms that get everyone moving. These instruments are grouped into categories based on how they make sound.

African ensembles blend different instrument types to create rich, layered music. Drum groups, string bands, and mixed ensembles all have unique sounds. The interplay between instruments through call-and-response and interlocking parts is key to African musical traditions.

African Instrument Categories

Hornbostel-Sachs System of Instrument Classification

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• The four main categories of African instruments are idiophones, membranophones, chordophones, and aerophones
• These categories are based on the Hornbostel-Sachs system, a widely used method for classifying musical instruments according to their sound-producing mechanisms

Idiophones

• Idiophones produce sound through the vibration of the instrument itself, without the use of strings, membranes, or air columns
• Key African idiophones include:
  • Mbira/kalimba (thumb piano)
  • Balafon (xylophone)
  • Various rattles and bells (shakers, gankogui)

Membranophones

• Membranophones generate sound via a vibrating stretched membrane, typically made of animal skin or synthetic materials
• Important African membranophones include a wide variety of drums such as:
  • Djembe (goblet-shaped hand drum)
  • Talking drum (hourglass-shaped pressure drum)
  • Water drum (a drum partially filled with water to alter its pitch)

Chordophones

• Chordophones create sound through the vibration of strings, which are typically plucked, strummed, or bowed
• Notable African chordophones include:
  • Kora (21-string bridge-harp)
  • Ngoni (lute)
  • Musical bow (a single-string instrument played with the mouth as a resonator)

Aerophones

• Aerophones produce sound by vibrating columns of air, either by blowing across an opening or through a reed
• Significant African aerophones include:
  • Flutes (endere, orutu, njuara)
  • Horns (kakaki, waza)
  • Trumpets (ivory trumpet, gourd trumpet)

Construction and Playing Techniques of African Instruments

Mbira/Kalimba

• The mbira/kalimba consists of metal tines attached to a wooden soundboard
• It is played by holding the instrument and plucking the tines with the thumbs
• The mbira often plays the core cyclical patterns in Shona music from Zimbabwe
• Variations in the number and arrangement of tines create different types of mbiras (nyunga nyunga, karimba)

Kora

• The kora is a 21-string bridge-harp built from a large calabash cut in half and covered with cow skin to make a resonator
• The strings, made of fishing line or nylon, are plucked with the index finger and thumb of both hands
• It is a solo and ensemble instrument in West African Mande music
• Kora players often use complex fingerpicking patterns and improvisation to create intricate melodies

Djembe

• The djembe is a goblet-shaped drum carved from a single piece of African hardwood with a goat skin head
• It is played with bare hands and produces a wide range of tones depending on the striking technique (bass, tone, slap)
• As a key part of West African drum ensembles, the djembe is used to maintain tempo and engage in call-and-response conversations
• Djembe solos often feature rapid, virtuosic patterns that showcase the drummer's skill and creativity

Balafon

• The balafon is a type of wooden xylophone with gourd resonators of various sizes underneath the keys
• The keys, made of rosewood or other hardwoods, are struck with mallets to produce different pitches
• It often plays melodic patterns in West African music, especially that of the Mandinka people
• Balafon players may use two or four mallets to create complex, interlocking rhythms and melodies

Musical Bows

• Musical bows are among the oldest African instruments, with a history dating back thousands of years
• They consist of a single string, made of plant fiber or metal, tied to a flexible wooden bow
• The string is struck with a thin stick while using the mouth as a resonator to amplify certain harmonics
• Musical bows are frequently used for solo performances, often accompanying storytelling or poetry recitation

African Musical Ensembles

Drum Ensembles

• Drum ensembles consisting of membranophones of various sizes and timbres are common throughout West Africa
• For example, the Mandinka people use an ensemble featuring the djembe, dundun, sangban, and kenkeni
• Each drum plays a specific role within the ensemble, creating a complex polyrhythmic texture
• Drum ensembles often accompany dance, storytelling, and religious ceremonies

Percussion Ensembles

• Percussion ensembles dominated by idiophones are found in many regions of Africa
• Shona mbira ensembles from Zimbabwe consist of multiple mbiras, shakers (hosho), and sometimes drums
• The interlocking patterns played by each instrument create a dense, cyclical structure
• Percussion ensembles may also feature xylophones (balafon, gyil), bells (gankogui), and rattles (shekere)

String Ensembles

• String ensembles centered around chordophones are less common but still significant in African music
• The Mande people of West Africa have kora-based ensembles that may also include the ngoni lute and balafon
• Kora ensembles often feature complex, improvisatory melodies and intricate fingerpicking patterns
• String ensembles may also include the goje fiddle, the seperewa harp-lute, and various musical bows

Wind Ensembles

• Wind ensembles featuring aerophones are relatively rare in traditional African music
• However, royal courts in Nigeria and Ghana have ceremonial ensembles with ivory trumpets like the kakaki
• These ensembles are typically associated with royalty, power, and prestige
• Wind ensembles may also include flutes (endere, orutu), horns (waza), and reed instruments (algaita)

Mixed Ensembles

• Mixed ensembles combining instruments from different categories are increasingly popular in contemporary African music
• An example is the Senegalese sabar ensemble which includes the sabar drum, tama talking drum, and tungune metal idiophone
• Mixed ensembles allow for greater variety in timbre, melody, and rhythm
• They may also incorporate Western instruments such as the guitar, keyboard, and saxophone

Instrument Interplay in African Ensembles

Call-and-Response

• Call-and-response patterns between instruments are a key feature of African ensemble music
• In a West African drum ensemble, the lead djembe plays improvised solos that "call" the other drums to respond with specific rhythms
• This musical conversation creates a dynamic, interactive performance
• Call-and-response can also occur between instrumental parts and vocals, or between two different ensembles

Interlocking Parts

• Interlocking parts played by different instruments create intricate polyrhythmic textures
• In a Shona mbira ensemble, each mbira plays a unique rhythmic pattern that interlocks with the others to form a complex cyclical structure
• These interlocking patterns often feature cross-rhythms, syncopation, and hemiola (2 against 3)
• Interlocking parts require precise timing and coordination between musicians

Instrumental Roles

• Instruments often fulfill specific roles within the ensemble, contributing to the overall structure and balance
• The timeline pattern played by an idiophone like the gankogui bell is the rhythmic foundation of West African drum ensembles
• It serves as a point of reference for the other instruments, helping to maintain the tempo and groove
• Other roles include lead instruments (djembe, kora), supporting instruments (dundun, ngoni), and percussion (shakers, rattles)

Timbral Complementation

• Instrumental timbres are carefully chosen to complement each other, creating a rich and varied soundscape
• In a kora-based ensemble, the resonant tones of the kora blend with the drier sound of the balafon and the percussive attack of the ngoni lute
• This timbral diversity adds depth and interest to the music
• Musicians may also use extended techniques (harmonics, muting, buzzing) to further expand the timbral palette

Improvisation

• Improvisation by lead instruments adds variety and excitement to African ensemble music
• In a sabar ensemble, the lead sabar drummer engages in virtuosic solos that showcase their technical skill and creativity while the other instruments maintain the underlying groove
• Improvisation allows musicians to express their individual style and respond to the energy of the performance
• Improvised solos often incorporate quotes from other songs, humorous references, and playful interactions with the audience