🍖World Prehistory Unit 4 – Neanderthals and Early Homo sapiens

Who Were the Neanderthals?

• Extinct species or subspecies of archaic humans who lived in Eurasia during the Pleistocene epoch (~400,000 to 40,000 years ago)
• Named after the Neandertal valley in Germany, where the first identified specimen was discovered in 1856
• Closely related to modern humans, sharing a common ancestor with Homo sapiens approximately 500,000 to 800,000 years ago
• Adapted to survive in cold climates, with robust builds, large noses, and shorter limbs compared to modern humans
• Possessed a larger cranial capacity than modern humans, averaging about 1,600 cm³ compared to 1,300 cm³ in modern humans
  • Larger brains may have been an adaptation to their high-protein diet and demanding environment
• Skilled hunters and gatherers, primarily relying on large game (mammoths, woolly rhinoceros) and plant foods
• Created and used a variety of stone tools, including the distinctive Mousterian technology
• Evidence suggests they had a complex social structure, cared for their sick and elderly, and practiced burial rituals

Early Homo Sapiens: Our Direct Ancestors

• Anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens) first appeared in Africa around 300,000 years ago
• Early Homo sapiens were characterized by a gracile skeleton, high forehead, and reduced brow ridge compared to archaic humans
• Developed advanced cognitive abilities, including language, symbolic thought, and creativity
  • Evidence of these abilities includes the creation of art, jewelry, and more sophisticated tools
• Migrated out of Africa in waves, beginning around 70,000 years ago, eventually colonizing all continents except Antarctica
• Adapted to diverse environments, from tropical rainforests to arctic tundra, through cultural and technological innovations
• Developed complex social structures, with evidence of trade networks, ritual practices, and social stratification
• Gradually replaced or absorbed other human species, including Neanderthals and Denisovans, through a combination of competition and interbreeding

Timeline and Geographical Spread

• Neanderthals evolved from earlier Homo species in Europe and Western Asia around 400,000 years ago
  • Remained largely confined to these regions throughout their existence
• Homo sapiens emerged in Africa around 300,000 years ago
  • Earliest known fossils discovered at Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, dated to approximately 315,000 years ago
• Homo sapiens began migrating out of Africa around 70,000 years ago
  • Reached the Near East by 60,000 years ago, Europe by 45,000 years ago, and Australia by 50,000 years ago
  • Arrived in the Americas by at least 15,000 years ago, possibly earlier
• Neanderthals and Homo sapiens coexisted in Europe and Western Asia for several thousand years (45,000 to 40,000 years ago)
  • During this period, the two species likely encountered each other and interbred
• Neanderthals went extinct around 40,000 years ago, with the last known populations surviving in the Iberian Peninsula
• By 30,000 years ago, Homo sapiens were the only surviving human species, having spread to all continents except Antarctica

Physical and Genetic Differences

• Neanderthals were generally more robust than Homo sapiens, with shorter, stockier builds adapted to cold climates
  • Had larger joint surfaces, thicker bones, and more pronounced muscle attachments
• Neanderthals had larger brains on average (1,600 cm³) compared to Homo sapiens (1,300 cm³)
  • However, Homo sapiens had a more globular braincase and reorganized brain structure
• Neanderthals had distinctive facial features, including a large, wide nose, a protruding midface, and a lack of chin
• Genetic studies have shown that Neanderthals and Homo sapiens share a common ancestor that lived around 500,000 to 800,000 years ago
  • The two species diverged, accumulating distinct genetic variations over time
• Interbreeding between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens occurred, resulting in a small percentage (1-4%) of Neanderthal DNA in modern non-African populations
  • Some Neanderthal genes have been associated with traits such as skin and hair pigmentation, immune response, and metabolism in modern humans
• Despite these differences, Neanderthals and Homo sapiens were more similar than different, sharing many anatomical and behavioral characteristics

Tools and Technology

• Neanderthals are associated with the Mousterian stone tool industry (300,000 to 30,000 years ago)
  • Characterized by the use of the Levallois technique, which allowed for the production of standardized flakes and points
• Mousterian tools included scrapers, points, and denticulates, which were used for a variety of tasks (butchering, woodworking, hide processing)
• Neanderthals also used organic materials, such as wood and bone, to create tools and weapons
  • Examples include wooden spears, bone awls, and possible bone flutes
• Evidence suggests Neanderthals employed complex hunting strategies, such as ambush hunting and cooperative drives
• Neanderthals controlled fire and used it for various purposes (cooking, warmth, protection, tool production)
• Some researchers argue that Neanderthals had a limited ability to innovate and adapt their technology compared to Homo sapiens
  • However, this view is contested, and evidence of Neanderthal technological and cultural sophistication continues to accumulate

Social Structure and Behavior

• Neanderthals lived in small, close-knit groups of 10-30 individuals, likely consisting of extended family members
• Evidence suggests Neanderthals cared for their sick, injured, and elderly group members
  • Fossils have been found with healed injuries and signs of chronic illness, indicating long-term care
• Neanderthals practiced burial rituals, with some individuals interred with grave goods (animal bones, stone tools, pigments)
  • This suggests a capacity for symbolic thought and possibly a belief in an afterlife
• Neanderthal sites have yielded evidence of pigment use (ochre), which may have been used for body decoration or symbolic purposes
• Some researchers argue that Neanderthals had a lower population density and less complex social networks compared to Homo sapiens
  • This may have limited their ability to innovate and adapt to changing environments
• However, the complexity of Neanderthal social behavior remains a topic of ongoing research and debate

Interactions Between Species

• Neanderthals and Homo sapiens coexisted in Europe and Western Asia for several thousand years (45,000 to 40,000 years ago)
• During this period, the two species likely encountered each other and interacted in various ways
  • Evidence suggests both peaceful interactions (interbreeding, cultural exchange) and competition (resource exploitation, territorial disputes)
• Genetic studies have shown that interbreeding occurred between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens
  • Non-African modern human populations carry 1-4% Neanderthal DNA, indicating successful admixture
• Some researchers suggest that Homo sapiens may have learned valuable skills and knowledge from Neanderthals, such as survival strategies in harsh environments
• Competition between the two species may have contributed to the extinction of Neanderthals
  • Homo sapiens' advanced technology, social networks, and adaptability may have given them an advantage in exploiting resources and responding to environmental changes
• The nature and extent of interactions between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens remain active areas of research and debate

Extinction and Legacy

• Neanderthals went extinct around 40,000 years ago, with the last known populations surviving in the Iberian Peninsula until about 37,000 years ago
• The exact causes of Neanderthal extinction are still debated, but likely involved a combination of factors:
  • Competition with Homo sapiens for resources and territory
  • Climate change and environmental instability during the Late Pleistocene
  • Demographic factors, such as small population sizes and low genetic diversity
  • Possible differences in cognitive abilities and technological adaptability compared to Homo sapiens
• Despite their extinction, Neanderthals left a lasting legacy in the form of genetic contributions to modern human populations
  • Non-African individuals carry 1-4% Neanderthal DNA, which has been linked to various traits and adaptations (immune response, skin and hair pigmentation, metabolism)
• Neanderthals also contributed to our understanding of human evolution and the complexity of archaic human behavior
  • Their archaeological record demonstrates advanced cognitive abilities, social complexity, and technological sophistication
• The study of Neanderthals continues to provide valuable insights into the evolutionary history of our species and the factors that shaped modern human biology and behavior