📚Intro to Modern Chinese Literature Unit 2 – Late Qing: Transition to Early Modernization

Historical Context

• Late Qing period (1840-1911) marked a time of significant political, social, and cultural upheaval in China
• Opium Wars (1839-1842 and 1856-1860) exposed China's weakness against Western powers and led to unequal treaties
• Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864), a massive civil war, devastated the country and weakened the Qing dynasty's authority
  • Led by Hong Xiuquan, who claimed to be the younger brother of Jesus Christ
  • Established the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom in Nanjing
• Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1895) aimed to modernize China's military and industry while preserving traditional Confucian values
• First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) resulted in China's defeat and the loss of Taiwan and Korea as tributaries
• Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901) saw anti-foreign sentiment erupt into violence against Western missionaries and diplomats
• Xinhai Revolution (1911) led to the overthrow of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of the Republic of China

Key Figures and Movements

• Empress Dowager Cixi, the de facto ruler of China during the late Qing period, initially supported reforms but later opposed them
• Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, prominent intellectuals who advocated for constitutional monarchy and modernization during the Hundred Days' Reform (1898)
• Sun Yat-sen, the leader of the Tongmenghui (Revolutionary Alliance) and later the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party), played a crucial role in the Xinhai Revolution
• May Fourth Movement (1919) marked a turning point in Chinese intellectual history, with students and intellectuals calling for cultural and political reforms
  • Inspired by the New Culture Movement, which promoted vernacular literature and Western ideas
  • Sparked by the Treaty of Versailles, which awarded German concessions in Shandong to Japan
• Anarchism and Marxism gained popularity among Chinese intellectuals as alternatives to traditional Confucian thought

Literary Trends and Genres

• Vernacular literature (baihua) gained prominence, challenging the dominance of classical Chinese (wenyan) in literary works
• Realism and naturalism influenced Chinese writers, who sought to depict social realities and criticize traditional values
• Short stories and novels became popular genres, allowing writers to explore a wide range of themes and characters
  • Examples include Lu Xun's "A Madman's Diary" (1918) and Lao She's "Rickshaw Boy" (1937)
• Translations of Western literature introduced new ideas and styles to Chinese readers, such as romanticism and modernism
• Women writers, such as Ding Ling and Xiao Hong, emerged and addressed issues of gender inequality and female empowerment

Major Works and Authors

• "The Travels of Lao Can" (1907) by Liu E, a satirical novel criticizing the corruption and inefficiency of the Qing government
• "The New Year's Sacrifice" (1924) by Lu Xun, a short story depicting the tragic life of a widow in a superstitious and oppressive society
• "Family" (1931) by Ba Jin, a novel exploring the generational conflicts and the decline of traditional family values
  • Part of the "Love Trilogy," along with "Spring" (1938) and "Autumn" (1940)
• "Midnight" (1933) by Mao Dun, a novel portraying the lives of Shanghai industrialists and the impact of foreign capitalism on Chinese society
• "Camel Xiangzi" (1937) by Lao She, a novel depicting the struggles of a rickshaw puller in Beijing and the social injustices he faces

Societal Changes and Influences

• Rapid urbanization and industrialization transformed Chinese cities, particularly Shanghai, which became a hub of modern culture and commerce
• Rise of a new urban middle class, consisting of professionals, entrepreneurs, and intellectuals, who embraced Western ideas and lifestyles
• Women's roles began to change, with increased access to education and participation in public life
  • Foot binding, a traditional practice, was gradually abandoned
  • New Marriage Law (1950) granted women equal rights in marriage and divorce
• Increasing social stratification and income inequality, as the gap between the rich and the poor widened
• Popularization of print media, including newspapers, magazines, and books, facilitated the spread of new ideas and debates

Cultural and Intellectual Shifts

• Confucianism, the dominant philosophy in China for centuries, faced challenges from Western ideas and progressive thinkers
• New Culture Movement (1915-1923) promoted science, democracy, and individualism as alternatives to traditional Chinese values
  • Hu Shih, a prominent intellectual, advocated for the use of vernacular Chinese in literature and education
  • Chen Duxiu, a co-founder of the Chinese Communist Party, called for a complete rejection of Confucianism
• Debates between traditionalists and modernizers shaped intellectual discourse, with some seeking to preserve Chinese culture while others pushed for radical change
• Rise of nationalism and anti-imperialism, as Chinese intellectuals sought to assert China's sovereignty and resist foreign domination
• Growing interest in Marxism and socialism, particularly among young intellectuals disillusioned with the failures of the Republican government

Foreign Influences and Interactions

• Western powers, particularly Britain, France, and the United States, exerted significant influence on China through trade, diplomacy, and military intervention
• Missionaries, both Protestant and Catholic, established schools, hospitals, and churches in China, introducing Western education and values
• Translations of Western literature, philosophy, and scientific works exposed Chinese intellectuals to new ideas and concepts
  • Yan Fu's translations of Thomas Huxley's "Evolution and Ethics" and Adam Smith's "The Wealth of Nations" had a significant impact
  • Lin Shu's translations of Western novels, such as "Uncle Tom's Cabin" and "Oliver Twist," popularized foreign literature
• Chinese students studying abroad, particularly in Japan, Europe, and the United States, brought back new ideas and perspectives
• Sino-Japanese relations deteriorated, with Japan emerging as a major threat to China's sovereignty and territorial integrity

Legacy and Impact on Modern China

• May Fourth Movement's emphasis on science, democracy, and individualism continues to shape Chinese intellectual discourse
• Vernacular Chinese (baihua) became the standard language for literature and education, replacing classical Chinese (wenyan)
• Communist Party of China, founded in 1921, drew inspiration from the May Fourth Movement and the New Culture Movement
  • Mao Zedong, the party's leader, adapted Marxism-Leninism to Chinese conditions and led the Communist revolution
• People's Republic of China, established in 1949, implemented sweeping social and economic reforms based on socialist principles
• Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) sought to eradicate traditional culture and bourgeois influences, leading to widespread destruction and violence
• Economic reforms and opening up, initiated by Deng Xiaoping in 1978, transformed China into a global economic power while maintaining one-party rule
• Tiananmen Square protests (1989) reflected ongoing tensions between the desire for political reform and the Communist Party's grip on power