🌮Latin American Politics Unit 3 – 20th Century Latin American Politics

Historical Context and Background

• Latin America's colonial past shaped its political landscape with legacies of authoritarianism, inequality, and dependence on foreign powers
• Independence movements in the early 19th century led to the formation of new nation-states, but political instability and caudillismo (strongman rule) persisted
  • Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín played key roles in the independence struggles (Gran Colombia, Peru)
• Economic dependence on commodity exports (coffee, bananas) and foreign investment created patterns of underdevelopment and vulnerability to global market fluctuations
• Indigenous peoples and Afro-descendants faced marginalization and exclusion from political power, despite being significant portions of the population in many countries
• The Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) marked a significant shift towards social and agrarian reform, influencing later revolutionary movements
• Rapid urbanization and industrialization in the mid-20th century transformed social structures and gave rise to new political actors (urban working class, middle class)
• The Cuban Revolution (1959) and the rise of Fidel Castro inspired leftist and anti-imperialist movements throughout the region

Key Political Ideologies

• Liberalism emphasized individual rights, free markets, and limited government intervention, often associated with elite interests and foreign capital
• Conservatism defended traditional social hierarchies, the role of the Catholic Church, and centralized state power
• Nationalism sought to assert national sovereignty and resist foreign influence, often taking on anti-imperialist and anti-US tones
  • Resource nationalism aimed to nationalize key industries (oil, mining) and redistribute wealth
• Populism emerged as a style of leadership that appealed directly to the masses, often through charismatic figures and redistributive policies
  • Juan Perón in Argentina and Getúlio Vargas in Brazil exemplified populist leaders
• Socialism and communism gained traction as alternatives to capitalism, emphasizing workers' rights, social welfare, and state-led development
  • The Cuban Revolution and the Sandinistas in Nicaragua represented socialist experiments
• Developmentalism focused on state-led industrialization and import substitution as strategies for economic growth and modernization
• Neoliberalism gained prominence in the 1980s-90s, advocating free markets, privatization, and reduced state intervention as solutions to economic crises

Major Political Movements

• Labor movements and trade unions organized workers to demand better conditions and political representation, often aligning with leftist parties
• Peasant movements fought for land reform and rural development, challenging the power of large landowners (latifundistas)
  • The Zapatista uprising in Mexico (1994) brought indigenous rights and autonomy to the forefront
• Student movements played a key role in challenging authoritarian regimes and pushing for democratic reforms
  • The Tlatelolco massacre in Mexico (1968) and the Cordobazo in Argentina (1969) were watershed moments
• Guerrilla movements emerged in the 1960s-70s, inspired by the Cuban Revolution and Marxist ideology, seeking to overthrow governments through armed struggle
  • The Tupamaros in Uruguay, the M-19 in Colombia, and the Shining Path in Peru were notable examples
• Human rights movements denounced abuses by military dictatorships and advocated for justice and accountability
  • The Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo in Argentina drew international attention to the disappeared
• Indigenous movements asserted cultural rights and autonomy, challenging assimilationist policies and discrimination
• Women's movements fought for gender equality, reproductive rights, and political representation, often intersecting with other social struggles

Influential Leaders and Figures

• Fidel Castro led the Cuban Revolution and established a socialist state, becoming a symbol of anti-imperialism and leftist resistance
• Che Guevara, an Argentine Marxist revolutionary, fought alongside Castro and inspired guerrilla movements across the region
• Salvador Allende, democratically elected socialist president of Chile, was overthrown in a US-backed military coup in 1973
• Augusto Pinochet, the military dictator who ruled Chile from 1973-1990, implemented neoliberal policies and oversaw widespread human rights abuses
• Juan Perón, president of Argentina (1946-55, 1973-74), founded a populist movement (Peronism) that dominated the country's politics for decades
• Lázaro Cárdenas, president of Mexico (1934-40), nationalized the oil industry and implemented major land reforms
• Getúlio Vargas, president of Brazil (1930-45, 1951-54), led a populist government that promoted industrialization and labor rights
• Hugo Chávez, president of Venezuela (1999-2013), launched a socialist "Bolivarian Revolution" and challenged US influence in the region

Revolutionary Periods and Coups

• The Mexican Revolution (1910-1920) overthrew the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz and led to a new constitution with social and agrarian reforms
• The Bolivian National Revolution (1952) brought the Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario (MNR) to power, nationalizing mines and implementing land reform
• The Cuban Revolution (1959) ousted the US-backed dictator Fulgencio Batista and established a socialist state under Fidel Castro
  • The failed Bay of Pigs invasion (1961) and the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) heightened Cold War tensions
• The Chilean coup (1973) overthrew the socialist government of Salvador Allende and installed a military dictatorship under Augusto Pinochet
• The Nicaraguan Revolution (1979) saw the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) overthrow the Somoza dictatorship and establish a socialist government
  • The Contra War (1981-1990) pitted the Sandinistas against US-backed rebels
• The Guatemalan coup (1954) overthrew the democratically elected government of Jacobo Árbenz, who had implemented land reforms that threatened US corporate interests
• The Brazilian coup (1964) established a military dictatorship that lasted until 1985, suppressing leftist opposition and implementing modernization projects

US Involvement and Cold War Impact

• The US intervened in Latin American affairs through covert operations, military aid, and economic pressure to protect its interests and counter perceived communist threats
  • The CIA supported coups in Guatemala (1954), Brazil (1964), and Chile (1973)
• The Alliance for Progress (1961-1970) provided aid for development projects, but also aimed to prevent the spread of Cuban-style revolutions
• The School of the Americas trained Latin American military officers, some of whom went on to commit human rights abuses and support dictatorships
• The US imposed economic sanctions and embargoes on leftist governments, such as Cuba and Nicaragua, to pressure them to change course
• The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) brought the world to the brink of nuclear war and solidified Cuba's alignment with the Soviet Union
• The Contra War in Nicaragua (1981-1990) saw the US fund and arm right-wing rebels to undermine the Sandinista government
• The drug war in the Andes region, particularly in Colombia and Peru, involved US military aid and training to combat leftist guerrillas and drug cartels
• The end of the Cold War in the early 1990s reduced US interest in the region and opened space for new political and economic models

Democratization and Transitions

• The 1980s-90s saw a wave of democratic transitions as military dictatorships gave way to civilian rule
  • Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay underwent negotiated transitions with varying degrees of accountability for past abuses
• The Central American peace processes in the late 1980s-early 1990s ended civil wars and established democratic governments in Nicaragua, El Salvador, and Guatemala
• The Mexican political system underwent gradual democratization, with the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) losing its 71-year grip on power in the 2000 elections
• The Fujimori regime in Peru (1990-2000) combined neoliberal policies with authoritarian rule, collapsing amid corruption scandals and protests
• The Bolivarian Revolution in Venezuela (1999-present) challenged the two-party system and implemented participatory democracy, but faced increasing authoritarianism and economic crisis
• Indigenous movements in Bolivia and Ecuador pushed for constitutional reforms and the recognition of plurinational states
• The Pink Tide of leftist governments in the early 2000s (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Bolivia, Ecuador) promoted social welfare and regional integration, but faced challenges of governance and economic management

Contemporary Challenges and Trends

• Persistent inequality and poverty remain major challenges, with high levels of informality and limited access to social services
• Corruption scandals have rocked political establishments and eroded trust in institutions
  • The Odebrecht scandal implicated politicians across the region in bribery schemes
• Organized crime and drug trafficking have fueled violence and undermined the rule of law, particularly in Mexico, Central America, and Colombia
• Environmental conflicts over resource extraction (mining, oil, logging) have pitted indigenous communities against state and corporate interests
• The crisis in Venezuela has led to a massive outflow of refugees and regional tensions, testing the capacity of neighboring countries to respond
• The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated social and economic inequalities, straining health systems and exposing the vulnerabilities of informal workers
• The rise of right-wing populism, exemplified by Jair Bolsonaro in Brazil, has challenged progressive agendas and democratic norms
• Growing demands for gender equality, LGBTQ+ rights, and racial justice have intersected with broader struggles for social and political change