11.4 Early 20th-century pan-Indian organizations and activism

Early 20th-century pan-Indian organizations united Native Americans across tribes to fight for rights and preserve culture. Groups like the Society of American Indians and National Council of American Indians advocated for citizenship, better living conditions, and tribal sovereignty.

These organizations had a big impact on federal policy. They helped pass laws like the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 and Indian Claims Commission Act of 1946, laying groundwork for future Native rights movements.

Pan-Indian Organizations of the Early 20th Century

Society of American Indians (SAI)

• Founded in 1911 as the first national pan-Indian organization
• Brought together educated Native Americans from various tribes to advocate for Native rights and cultural preservation
• Published the quarterly journal "American Indian Magazine" to raise awareness of Native issues

National Council of American Indians (NCAI)

• Established in 1926 to unite Native American tribes and advocate for their common interests
• Focused on protecting tribal sovereignty and improving living conditions on reservations
• Played a crucial role in the development and passage of the Indian Claims Commission Act of 1946, which established a commission to hear and resolve Native American land claims against the federal government

American Indian Federation (AIF)

• Formed in 1934 to oppose the Indian Reorganization Act and advocate for the abolition of the Bureau of Indian Affairs
• Argued for greater Native American autonomy and self-determination
• Criticized the Indian Reorganization Act for perpetuating the paternalistic control of the Bureau of Indian Affairs over Native American affairs

Goals and Strategies of Pan-Indian Activism

Promoting Native American Rights and Cultural Preservation

• The Society of American Indians aimed to promote Native American citizenship rights, improve education and health care, and challenge negative stereotypes
• Successfully lobbied for the passage of the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924, which granted U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans, although some states continued to deny them voting rights
• Gertrude Bonnin (Zitkala-Ša) (Yankton Dakota), a writer, musician, and activist, served as the SAI's secretary and editor of "American Indian Magazine," advocating for Native American rights, particularly in education and cultural preservation

Protecting Tribal Sovereignty and Improving Living Conditions

• The National Council of American Indians focused on protecting tribal sovereignty, improving living conditions on reservations, and advocating for the proper implementation of treaties and agreements between Native American tribes and the U.S. government
• Alice Lee Jemison (Seneca), a prominent member of the NCAI, advocated for Native American voting rights and improved living conditions on reservations
• The NCAI played a crucial role in the development and passage of the Indian Claims Commission Act of 1946, which provided a mechanism for Native American tribes to seek compensation for lands taken by the U.S. government

Opposing the Indian Reorganization Act and Bureau of Indian Affairs

• The American Indian Federation opposed the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, arguing that it perpetuated the paternalistic control of the Bureau of Indian Affairs over Native American affairs
• Joseph Bruner (Creek), founder and president of the AIF, was a vocal critic of the Indian Reorganization Act and the Bureau of Indian Affairs, advocating for greater Native American self-determination
• The AIF advocated for the abolition of the BIA and greater Native American autonomy

Key Leaders of the Pan-Indian Movement

Dr. Charles Eastman (Santee Dakota)

• Co-founder of the Society of American Indians and served as its first president
• Physician, writer, and lecturer who worked to bridge the gap between Native American and Euro-American cultures
• Advocated for Native American rights and cultural preservation

Gertrude Bonnin (Zitkala-Ša) (Yankton Dakota)

• Writer, musician, and activist who served as the SAI's secretary and editor of "American Indian Magazine"
• Advocated for Native American rights, particularly in education and cultural preservation
• Used her platform to raise awareness of Native American issues and challenge negative stereotypes

Arthur C. Parker (Seneca)

• Co-founder of the SAI and served as its president from 1916 to 1920
• Anthropologist and historian who worked to preserve Native American cultural heritage and promote understanding between Native and non-Native communities
• Contributed to the development of the SAI's goals and strategies

Alice Lee Jemison (Seneca)

• Prominent member of the National Council of American Indians
• Advocated for Native American voting rights and improved living conditions on reservations
• Worked to protect tribal sovereignty and ensure the proper implementation of treaties and agreements

Joseph Bruner (Creek)

• Founded the American Indian Federation and served as its president
• Vocal critic of the Indian Reorganization Act and the Bureau of Indian Affairs
• Advocated for greater Native American self-determination and the abolition of the BIA

Impact of Pan-Indian Activism on Federal Policy

Indian Citizenship Act of 1924

• Lobbied for by the Society of American Indians, the act granted U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans, marking a significant step towards equal rights and political participation
• However, some states continued to deny Native Americans voting rights, and the act did not address issues of tribal sovereignty or self-determination
• The act demonstrated the influence of pan-Indian activism on federal policy, although its impact was limited

Indian Reorganization Act of 1934

• Aimed to promote tribal self-government and economic development on reservations, ending allotment policies and restoring some tribal lands
• Provided for the establishment of tribal constitutions and governments
• Opposed by the American Indian Federation, who argued that the act perpetuated federal control over Native American affairs and did not go far enough in promoting self-determination
• The act's passage highlighted the complex and sometimes conflicting goals of pan-Indian organizations

Indian Claims Commission Act of 1946

• Advocated for by the National Council of American Indians, the act provided a mechanism for Native American tribes to seek compensation for lands taken by the U.S. government
• The commission heard hundreds of cases and awarded millions of dollars in settlements, although the process was lengthy and not all claims were successful
• The act demonstrated the impact of pan-Indian activism on federal policy and the ongoing struggle for Native American land rights

Legacy of Early 20th-Century Pan-Indian Activism

• Raised awareness of Native American issues and laid the foundation for future Native rights movements, such as the American Indian Movement (AIM) of the 1960s and 1970s
• Demonstrated the power of intertribal unity and collaboration in advocating for Native American rights and challenging federal Indian policy
• Despite the limitations and challenges faced by early 20th-century pan-Indian organizations, their efforts contributed to the ongoing fight for Native American self-determination and cultural preservation