12.2 Peacemaking Initiatives and Conflict Termination

Peacemaking initiatives aim to end conflicts through diplomatic means. Negotiation, mediation, and arbitration are key tools used to bring warring parties together. These approaches involve direct talks, third-party facilitation, and binding decisions to resolve disputes.

Conflict resolution outcomes include peace agreements, ceasefires, and power-sharing arrangements. These solutions face challenges from spoilers who may use violence to derail peace processes. Managing spoilers and overcoming obstacles are crucial for successful peacemaking efforts.

Diplomatic Approaches

Negotiation and Mediation

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• Negotiation involves direct talks between conflicting parties to reach a mutually acceptable agreement
• Negotiations can be facilitated by a neutral third party (mediator) who assists in communication and problem-solving
• Mediation is a voluntary process where a mediator helps parties reach a settlement but does not impose a solution
• Mediators can be individuals, states, or international organizations (United Nations)

Arbitration and Track I Diplomacy

• Arbitration is a process where a neutral third party hears arguments from both sides and makes a binding decision
• Arbitration differs from mediation as the arbitrator has the authority to determine the outcome
• Track I diplomacy refers to official governmental diplomacy conducted by professional diplomats and political leaders
• Track I diplomacy includes high-level negotiations, summit meetings, and official diplomatic channels

Track II Diplomacy

• Track II diplomacy involves unofficial, informal interaction between members of adversarial groups or nations
• Aims to develop strategies, influence public opinion, and organize human and material resources to resolve conflicts
• Participants in Track II diplomacy are usually influential academic, religious, and NGO leaders with ties to governments
• Track II diplomacy can pave the way for official negotiations by building trust and exploring options (Oslo Accords)

Conflict Resolution Outcomes

Peace Agreements and Ceasefires

• Conflict resolution refers to the process of resolving disputes to reach an agreement and end hostilities
• Peace agreements are formal agreements between warring parties that address the disputed incompatibility and establish a framework for peace
• Peace agreements often include provisions for ceasefires, withdrawal of forces, and political, economic, and social reforms
• A ceasefire is a temporary stoppage of war or any armed conflict for an agreed-upon timeframe

Power-Sharing Arrangements

• Power-sharing arrangements are institutional mechanisms designed to include representatives from different groups in political decision-making
• Power-sharing can be based on territory (federalism), group identity (consociationalism), or a combination of both
• Aims to promote cooperation, accommodate diversity, and prevent one group from dominating others
• Examples of power-sharing include Lebanon's confessional system and Bosnia's Dayton Agreement

Challenges to Peacemaking

Spoilers and Their Impact

• Spoilers are leaders or factions who believe the emerging peace threatens their power, worldview, and interests
• Spoilers use violence to undermine peace processes and negotiations
• Spoilers can be inside or outside the peace process and can be motivated by various factors (ideology, greed, fear)
• Examples of spoilers include Hamas in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the FARC in Colombia
• Strategies to manage spoilers include inducements, socialization, coercion, and robust third-party involvement