3.1 Social constructionism vs. essentialism in gender and sexuality

Social constructionism and essentialism are two competing perspectives on gender and sexuality. They clash over whether these aspects of identity are shaped by society or determined by biology. This debate has major implications for how we understand and approach gender and sexual diversity.

The nature vs. nurture debate is central to this topic. It asks whether our genes or our environment play a bigger role in shaping who we are. This connects to broader questions about identity, free will, and human nature that the chapter explores.

Theoretical Approaches

Social Constructionism and Cultural Relativism

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• Social constructionism posits that gender and sexuality are shaped by social and cultural factors rather than being innate or biologically determined
• Emphasizes the role of language, discourse, and social interactions in constructing and perpetuating gender and sexual norms (gender roles, sexual scripts)
• Cultural relativism suggests that gender and sexual norms vary across cultures and historical periods, challenging the notion of universal or essential gender and sexual categories
• Highlights the diversity of gender and sexual expressions across different societies (two-spirit identities in some Native American cultures, hijras in South Asia)

Essentialism and Biological Determinism

• Essentialism argues that gender and sexuality are inherent, fixed, and biologically determined characteristics that are universal across cultures and historical periods
• Suggests that there are essential differences between men and women, and between heterosexuals and homosexuals, that are rooted in biology or nature
• Biological determinism emphasizes the role of genes, hormones, and other biological factors in shaping gender and sexual identities and behaviors
• Often relies on evolutionary explanations to justify gender and sexual differences as adaptive and necessary for survival and reproduction (sexual selection theory, parental investment theory)

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

• The nature vs. nurture debate centers on the relative influence of biology (genes, hormones) versus environment (social and cultural factors) in shaping gender and sexuality
• Proponents of the nature perspective emphasize the role of innate, biological factors in determining gender and sexual differences (prenatal hormone exposure, genetic influences)
• Nurture perspective highlights the importance of socialization, learning, and cultural norms in shaping gender and sexual identities and behaviors
• Interactionist approaches recognize the complex interplay between biological and environmental factors in shaping gender and sexuality, suggesting that nature and nurture work together rather than being mutually exclusive

Gender and Sexuality in Society

Gender Roles and Sexual Scripts

• Gender roles are socially constructed expectations and norms that define appropriate behaviors, attributes, and responsibilities for men and women in a given society
• Includes expectations about appearance, personality traits, occupations, and family roles (men as breadwinners, women as caregivers)
• Sexual scripts are culturally prescribed guidelines for sexual behavior, including expectations about sexual initiation, consent, and sexual practices
• Scripts often differ for men and women, with men expected to be sexually assertive and women expected to be sexually passive or responsive

Historicity of Sexuality

• The historicity of sexuality refers to the idea that sexual identities, categories, and practices are historically and culturally specific rather than universal or timeless
• Foucault's work on the history of sexuality challenged the notion of a fixed, essential sexual identity, arguing that sexual categories (heterosexuality, homosexuality) are historically constructed
• Examples of historically specific sexual identities and practices include the ancient Greek practice of pederasty, the Victorian ideal of sexual restraint, and the emergence of modern gay and lesbian identities in the 20th century
• Highlights the ways in which sexual norms and identities have shifted over time in response to changing social, political, and economic conditions (industrialization, urbanization, social movements)