🤔Cognitive Psychology Unit 5 – Attention

What is Attention?

• Attention refers to the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on a specific aspect of information while ignoring other perceivable information
• Involves the allocation of limited mental resources to process and prioritize incoming sensory information (visual, auditory, tactile)
• Enables individuals to focus on task-relevant stimuli and filter out irrelevant or distracting information
• Plays a crucial role in perception, learning, memory, and decision-making by directing cognitive resources to important information
• Attention can be voluntary (top-down) or involuntary (bottom-up)
  • Voluntary attention is goal-directed and controlled by the individual's intentions or objectives
  • Involuntary attention is driven by salient or unexpected stimuli in the environment (sudden loud noise)
• Attention is a limited resource and can be easily overloaded or depleted, leading to attentional bottlenecks and decreased performance
• Attention is closely linked to other cognitive processes such as working memory and executive functions

Types of Attention

• Selective Attention
  • Focuses on a specific stimulus while ignoring or filtering out irrelevant information
  • Enables efficient processing of task-relevant information in the presence of distractors (focusing on a conversation in a noisy room)
• Divided Attention
  • Involves the simultaneous processing of multiple stimuli or tasks
  • Requires the allocation of attentional resources to multiple sources of information (driving while talking on the phone)
  • Performance on individual tasks may be impaired when dividing attention compared to focusing on a single task
• Sustained Attention
  • Maintains focus on a specific task or stimulus over an extended period
  • Requires vigilance and the ability to resist distractions or fatigue (air traffic controllers monitoring radar screens)
• Alternating Attention
  • Involves shifting focus between multiple tasks or stimuli
  • Requires cognitive flexibility and the ability to quickly disengage from one task and engage in another (multitasking between work projects)
• Attentional Capture
  • Occurs when a salient or unexpected stimulus automatically draws attention, even if it is irrelevant to the current task
  • Can be beneficial for detecting important changes in the environment but can also be disruptive to ongoing tasks (a flashing advertisement on a website)

Theories of Attention

• Bottleneck Theory (Broadbent, 1958)
  • Proposes that attention acts as a filter or bottleneck, allowing only a limited amount of information to be processed at a time
  • Suggests that irrelevant information is filtered out early in the processing stage based on physical characteristics (location, color)
• Attenuation Theory (Treisman, 1964)
  • Suggests that unattended information is not completely filtered out but is instead attenuated or weakened
  • Allows for some processing of unattended stimuli, which can still influence behavior or be recalled later
• Late Selection Theory (Deutsch & Deutsch, 1963)
  • Proposes that all incoming information is processed to a semantic level before attention selects relevant information for further processing
  • Suggests that selection occurs later in the processing stage, after the meaning of the stimuli has been extracted
• Perceptual Load Theory (Lavie, 1995)
  • Suggests that the extent to which irrelevant information is processed depends on the perceptual load of the task
  • High perceptual load tasks consume more attentional resources, leaving less capacity for processing irrelevant information
  • Low perceptual load tasks allow for more processing of irrelevant information, as there are spare attentional resources available
• Feature Integration Theory (Treisman & Gelade, 1980)
  • Proposes that attention is required to bind individual features (color, shape, size) into a coherent object representation
  • Suggests that pre-attentive processing can detect individual features in parallel, but attention is necessary for feature integration

Attention Processes

• Orienting
  • Involves the alignment of attention with a specific stimulus or location
  • Can be overt (accompanied by eye movements) or covert (without eye movements)
  • Enables the prioritization of sensory input from a particular source
• Filtering
  • Process of selecting relevant information and ignoring or suppressing irrelevant information
  • Helps to reduce the processing load and prevent attentional overload
  • Can occur at different stages of processing (early or late selection)
• Searching
  • Involves actively scanning the environment for a specific target or piece of information
  • Can be guided by top-down factors (knowledge, expectations) or bottom-up factors (salience, distinctiveness)
  • Efficiency of search depends on the similarity between the target and distractors and the number of distractors present
• Switching
  • Involves shifting attention between different tasks, stimuli, or mental sets
  • Requires disengagement from the current focus and re-engagement with a new focus
  • Can incur a switch cost, a temporary decrease in performance immediately following a switch
• Inhibition
  • Suppresses or inhibits the processing of irrelevant or distracting information
  • Helps to maintain focus on task-relevant stimuli and prevent interference from competing sources
  • Can be proactive (preventing distraction before it occurs) or reactive (suppressing distraction after it has been detected)

Factors Affecting Attention

• Salience
  • Refers to the distinctiveness or prominence of a stimulus relative to its surroundings
  • Salient stimuli (bright colors, sudden movements) are more likely to capture attention automatically
• Novelty
  • Stimuli that are new, unexpected, or unfamiliar tend to attract attention
  • Novelty detection helps to prioritize potentially important information and facilitates learning
• Relevance
  • Stimuli that are relevant to an individual's goals, needs, or interests are more likely to be attended to
  • Relevance can be determined by top-down factors such as knowledge, expectations, and motivation
• Emotion
  • Emotionally significant stimuli (threatening or rewarding) are more likely to capture and hold attention
  • Emotional salience can modulate attentional processes and influence perception, memory, and decision-making
• Arousal
  • Refers to the overall level of physiological and psychological activation
  • Optimal levels of arousal can enhance attentional performance, while too low or too high arousal can impair attention
• Fatigue
  • Mental or physical fatigue can lead to decreased attentional capacity and increased susceptibility to distraction
  • Fatigue can impair sustained attention, vigilance, and the ability to maintain focus over time
• Expertise
  • Domain-specific knowledge and experience can influence attentional processes
  • Experts are more efficient at allocating attention to relevant information and ignoring irrelevant details in their area of expertise

Measuring Attention

• Reaction Time Tasks
  • Measure the speed and accuracy of responses to specific stimuli
  • Faster reaction times and higher accuracy indicate better attentional performance
  • Examples include the Stroop task, flanker task, and go/no-go task
• Visual Search Tasks
  • Involve searching for a target stimulus among distractors
  • Measure the efficiency of attentional processes in detecting and discriminating targets
  • Can manipulate factors such as set size, target-distractor similarity, and visual load
• Continuous Performance Tasks (CPTs)
  • Assess sustained attention and vigilance over an extended period
  • Require participants to maintain focus and respond to specific targets while ignoring distractors
  • Measure factors such as hit rate, false alarms, and response variability
• Attentional Blink Tasks
  • Demonstrate a temporary lapse in attention following the detection of a target stimulus
  • Involve rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) of stimuli, with participants required to identify two targets (T1 and T2)
  • The attentional blink refers to the impaired detection of T2 when it appears shortly after T1
• Dual-Task Paradigms
  • Assess the ability to divide attention between multiple tasks or stimuli
  • Measure performance decrements when attention is divided compared to single-task conditions
  • Can involve concurrent performance of two tasks (driving simulation and memory task) or task-switching paradigms
• Eye-Tracking
  • Measures eye movements and fixations to infer attentional allocation
  • Can provide information about where attention is directed, how long it is sustained, and how it shifts over time
  • Useful for studying overt attention, visual search, and reading processes

Attention Disorders

• Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
  • Neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity
  • Symptoms can include difficulty sustaining attention, distractibility, forgetfulness, and restlessness
  • Associated with impairments in academic, social, and occupational functioning
• Neglect Syndrome
  • Neurological disorder characterized by a failure to attend to or respond to stimuli on the side of space opposite to a brain lesion
  • Most commonly associated with right hemisphere lesions, leading to left-sided neglect
  • Symptoms can include ignoring objects or people on the neglected side, difficulty with spatial navigation, and unawareness of the deficit
• Attentional Bias
  • Tendency to selectively attend to certain types of information while ignoring others
  • Can be adaptive (attending to threat in anxiety disorders) or maladaptive (attending to drug-related cues in substance use disorders)
  • Attentional biases can maintain or exacerbate psychological disorders by reinforcing negative thought patterns and behaviors
• Distractibility
  • Excessive susceptibility to irrelevant or unimportant stimuli
  • Can be a symptom of various conditions, including ADHD, sleep disorders, and certain medical conditions
  • Distractibility can impair performance on tasks requiring sustained attention and lead to errors or accidents in daily life

Practical Applications

• Education
  • Designing instructional materials and teaching strategies that optimize attention and minimize distraction
  • Incorporating attention-grabbing elements (novelty, salience) to enhance student engagement and learning
  • Providing accommodations for students with attentional difficulties (reduced distractions, frequent breaks)
• Workplace
  • Creating work environments that minimize distractions and support focused attention (quiet spaces, ergonomic design)
  • Implementing strategies to manage interruptions and maintain productivity (time-blocking, email management)
  • Providing training on attentional skills, such as mindfulness and task prioritization
• Transportation
  • Designing user interfaces in vehicles that minimize distraction and support safe driving
  • Implementing policies and campaigns to reduce distracted driving (texting while driving bans)
  • Developing advanced driver assistance systems (lane departure warnings) that can compensate for attentional lapses
• Marketing and Advertising
  • Utilizing attentional principles to create effective and attention-grabbing advertisements
  • Incorporating salient features (color, movement) and emotional appeals to capture and hold consumer attention
  • Optimizing ad placement and timing to maximize exposure and minimize attentional competition
• Clinical Applications
  • Developing attentional training programs for individuals with attentional disorders or deficits
  • Utilizing attention bias modification techniques to reduce attentional biases in anxiety and addiction
  • Incorporating attentional measures in neuropsychological assessments to detect and monitor cognitive impairments